diff --git a/lib/app-image/parser.ts b/lib/app-image/parser.ts
index 00a0b42..a401740 100644
--- a/lib/app-image/parser.ts
+++ b/lib/app-image/parser.ts
@@ -15,13 +15,13 @@ import {
  */
 export function parseAppImage(data: Uint8Array): AppImageInfo {
   if (data.length < IMAGE_HEADER_SIZE + EXTENDED_HEADER_SIZE) {
-    throw new Error(`数据太短: ${data.length} 字节 (最少需要 ${IMAGE_HEADER_SIZE + EXTENDED_HEADER_SIZE} 字节)`);
+    throw new Error(`Image too short: ${data.length}B`);
   }
 
   // ── Image Header (8 bytes: magic + segments + spi_mode + spi_speed_size + entry_addr) ──
   const magic = readU8(data, 0);
   if (magic !== IMAGE_MAGIC) {
-    throw new Error(`无效的魔数: 0x${magic.toString(16)} (应为 0xE9)`);
+    throw new Error(`Invalid image magic: 0x${magic.toString(16)}`);
   }
 
   const segmentCount = readU8(data, 1);
diff --git a/lib/nvs/nvs-binary-parser.ts b/lib/nvs/nvs-binary-parser.ts
index 2ed9030..ec0af06 100644
--- a/lib/nvs/nvs-binary-parser.ts
+++ b/lib/nvs/nvs-binary-parser.ts
@@ -66,10 +66,10 @@ interface ParsedPage {
  */
 export function parseBinary(data: Uint8Array): NvsPartition {
   if (data.length % PAGE_SIZE !== 0) {
-    throw new Error(`二进制数据大小 (${data.length}) 不是页大小 (${PAGE_SIZE}) 的倍数`);
+    throw new Error(`Invalid NVS size: ${data.length}B`);
   }
   if (data.length === 0) {
-    throw new Error('二进制数据为空');
+    throw new Error('NVS data is empty');
   }
 
   const pageCount = data.length / PAGE_SIZE;
diff --git a/lib/nvs/nvs-binary-serializer.ts b/lib/nvs/nvs-binary-serializer.ts
index 02377f6..8d48ead 100644
--- a/lib/nvs/nvs-binary-serializer.ts
+++ b/lib/nvs/nvs-binary-serializer.ts
@@ -62,10 +62,10 @@ interface PlannedEntry {
  */
 export function serializeBinary(partition: NvsPartition, targetSize: number): Uint8Array {
   if (targetSize % PAGE_SIZE !== 0) {
-    throw new Error(`目标大小 (${targetSize}) 不是页大小 (${PAGE_SIZE}) 的倍数`);
+    throw new Error(`Target size (${targetSize}) is not a multiple of page size (${PAGE_SIZE})`);
   }
   if (targetSize < MIN_PARTITION_SIZE) {
-    throw new Error(`目标大小 (${targetSize}) 小于最小分区大小 (${MIN_PARTITION_SIZE})`);
+    throw new Error(`Target size (${targetSize}) is less than minimum partition size (${MIN_PARTITION_SIZE})`);
   }
 
   // Allocate buffer filled with 0xFF (erased flash state)
@@ -328,8 +328,8 @@ export function serializeBinary(partition: NvsPartition, targetSize: number): Ui
 
   if (plannedIdx < planned.length) {
     throw new Error(
-      `分区空间不足: 还有 ${planned.length - plannedIdx} 个条目无法写入。` +
-      `请增大分区大小。`
+      `Partition space exhausted: ${planned.length - plannedIdx} entries could not be written. ` +
+      `Increase partition size.`
     );
   }
 
diff --git a/lib/nvs/nvs-csv-parser.ts b/lib/nvs/nvs-csv-parser.ts
index 29ce262..8642ba4 100644
--- a/lib/nvs/nvs-csv-parser.ts
+++ b/lib/nvs/nvs-csv-parser.ts
@@ -40,17 +40,17 @@ function parseIntValue(str: string): number {
   let val: number;
   if (str.startsWith('0x') || str.startsWith('0X')) {
     if (!/^-?0[xX][0-9a-fA-F]+$/.test(str)) {
-      throw new Error(`无效的整数值: "${str}"`);
+      throw new Error(`Invalid integer value: "${str}"`);
     }
     val = parseInt(str, 16);
   } else {
     if (!/^-?\d+$/.test(str)) {
-      throw new Error(`无效的整数值: "${str}"`);
+      throw new Error(`Invalid integer value: "${str}"`);
     }
     val = parseInt(str, 10);
   }
   if (Number.isNaN(val)) {
-    throw new Error(`无效的整数值: "${str}"`);
+    throw new Error(`Invalid integer value: "${str}"`);
   }
   return val;
 }
@@ -62,14 +62,14 @@ function parseBigIntValue(str: string): bigint {
   // Handle negative hex explicitly.
   if (str.startsWith('-0x') || str.startsWith('-0X')) {
     if (!/^-0[xX][0-9a-fA-F]+$/.test(str)) {
-      throw new Error(`无效的整数值: "${str}"`);
+      throw new Error(`Invalid integer value: "${str}"`);
     }
     return -BigInt(str.slice(1));
   }
   try {
     return BigInt(str);
   } catch {
-    throw new Error(`无效的整数值: "${str}"`);
+    throw new Error(`Invalid integer value: "${str}"`);
   }
 }
 
@@ -169,20 +169,20 @@ export function parseCsv(text: string): NvsPartition {
     }
 
     if (!currentNamespace) {
-      throw new Error(`行 ${i + 1}: 数据条目 "${key}" 出现在任何命名空间之前`);
+      throw new Error(`Line ${i + 1}: data entry "${key}" appears before any namespace`);
     }
 
     if (type !== 'data' && type !== 'file') {
-      throw new Error(`行 ${i + 1}: 未知类型 "${type}"`);
+      throw new Error(`Line ${i + 1}: unknown type "${type}"`);
     }
 
     if (!encoding) {
-      throw new Error(`行 ${i + 1}: 键 "${key}" 缺少编码类型`);
+      throw new Error(`Line ${i + 1}: key "${key}" missing encoding`);
     }
 
     const nvsType = ENCODING_TO_TYPE[encoding as NvsEncoding];
     if (nvsType === undefined) {
-      throw new Error(`行 ${i + 1}: 未知编码 "${encoding}"`);
+      throw new Error(`Line ${i + 1}: unknown encoding "${encoding}"`);
     }
 
     let parsedValue: number | bigint | string | Uint8Array;
diff --git a/lib/nvs/nvs-partition.ts b/lib/nvs/nvs-partition.ts
index 51a578a..5da696f 100644
--- a/lib/nvs/nvs-partition.ts
+++ b/lib/nvs/nvs-partition.ts
@@ -182,27 +182,27 @@ export function validatePartition(partition: NvsPartition): string[] {
   const errors: string[] = [];
 
   if (partition.namespaces.length > MAX_NAMESPACES) {
-    errors.push(`命名空间数量超过上限 ${MAX_NAMESPACES}`);
+    errors.push(`Namespace count exceeds limit ${MAX_NAMESPACES}`);
   }
 
   for (const ns of partition.namespaces) {
     if (ns.length === 0) {
-      errors.push('命名空间名称不能为空');
+      errors.push('Namespace name cannot be empty');
     }
     if (ns.length > MAX_KEY_LENGTH) {
-      errors.push(`命名空间 "${ns}" 名称超过 ${MAX_KEY_LENGTH} 字符`);
+      errors.push(`Namespace "${ns}" exceeds ${MAX_KEY_LENGTH} characters`);
     }
   }
 
   for (const entry of partition.entries) {
     if (entry.key.length === 0) {
-      errors.push(`在命名空间 "${entry.namespace}" 中存在空键名`);
+      errors.push(`Empty key in namespace "${entry.namespace}"`);
     }
     if (entry.key.length > MAX_KEY_LENGTH) {
-      errors.push(`键 "${entry.key}" 名称超过 ${MAX_KEY_LENGTH} 字符`);
+      errors.push(`Key "${entry.key}" exceeds ${MAX_KEY_LENGTH} characters`);
     }
     if (!partition.namespaces.includes(entry.namespace)) {
-      errors.push(`键 "${entry.key}" 的命名空间 "${entry.namespace}" 未注册`);
+      errors.push(`Key "${entry.key}" references unregistered namespace "${entry.namespace}"`);
     }
 
     // Validate value ranges for primitive types
@@ -210,21 +210,21 @@ export function validatePartition(partition: NvsPartition): string[] {
       if (typeof entry.value === 'number') {
         const v = entry.value;
         switch (entry.type) {
-          case NvsType.U8:  if (v < 0 || v > 0xFF) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" U8 值超出范围`); break;
-          case NvsType.I8:  if (v < -128 || v > 127) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" I8 值超出范围`); break;
-          case NvsType.U16: if (v < 0 || v > 0xFFFF) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" U16 值超出范围`); break;
-          case NvsType.I16: if (v < -32768 || v > 32767) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" I16 值超出范围`); break;
-          case NvsType.U32: if (v < 0 || v > 0xFFFFFFFF) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" U32 值超出范围`); break;
-          case NvsType.I32: if (v < -2147483648 || v > 2147483647) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" I32 值超出范围`); break;
+          case NvsType.U8:  if (v < 0 || v > 0xFF) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" U8 value out of range`); break;
+          case NvsType.I8:  if (v < -128 || v > 127) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" I8 value out of range`); break;
+          case NvsType.U16: if (v < 0 || v > 0xFFFF) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" U16 value out of range`); break;
+          case NvsType.I16: if (v < -32768 || v > 32767) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" I16 value out of range`); break;
+          case NvsType.U32: if (v < 0 || v > 0xFFFFFFFF) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" U32 value out of range`); break;
+          case NvsType.I32: if (v < -2147483648 || v > 2147483647) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" I32 value out of range`); break;
         }
       } else if (typeof entry.value === 'bigint') {
         const v = entry.value;
         switch (entry.type) {
           case NvsType.U64:
-            if (v < 0n || v > 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFn) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" U64 值超出范围`);
+            if (v < 0n || v > 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFn) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" U64 value out of range`);
             break;
           case NvsType.I64:
-            if (v < -9223372036854775808n || v > 9223372036854775807n) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" I64 值超出范围`);
+            if (v < -9223372036854775808n || v > 9223372036854775807n) errors.push(`"${entry.key}" I64 value out of range`);
             break;
         }
       }
@@ -234,7 +234,7 @@ export function validatePartition(partition: NvsPartition): string[] {
     if (entry.type === NvsType.SZ && typeof entry.value === 'string') {
       const byteLen = new TextEncoder().encode(entry.value).length;
       if (byteLen >= MAX_STRING_LENGTH) {
-        errors.push(`"${entry.key}" 字符串长度 ${byteLen} 字节超过上限 ${MAX_STRING_LENGTH - 1}`);
+        errors.push(`"${entry.key}" string length ${byteLen} bytes exceeds limit ${MAX_STRING_LENGTH - 1}`);
       }
     }
 
@@ -244,11 +244,11 @@ export function validatePartition(partition: NvsPartition): string[] {
     // NvsType.BLOB_DATA uses the V2 chunked format and is capped at MAX_BLOB_SIZE_V2.
     if (entry.type === NvsType.BLOB && entry.value instanceof Uint8Array) {
       if (entry.value.length > MAX_BLOB_SIZE_V1) {
-        errors.push(`"${entry.key}" BLOB ${entry.value.length} 字节超过上限 ${MAX_BLOB_SIZE_V1}`);
+        errors.push(`"${entry.key}" BLOB ${entry.value.length} bytes exceeds limit ${MAX_BLOB_SIZE_V1}`);
       }
     } else if (entry.type === NvsType.BLOB_DATA && entry.value instanceof Uint8Array) {
       if (entry.value.length > MAX_BLOB_SIZE_V2) {
-        errors.push(`"${entry.key}" BLOB ${entry.value.length} 字节超过 V2 上限 ${MAX_BLOB_SIZE_V2}`);
+        errors.push(`"${entry.key}" BLOB ${entry.value.length} bytes exceeds V2 limit ${MAX_BLOB_SIZE_V2}`);
       }
     }
   }
@@ -258,7 +258,7 @@ export function validatePartition(partition: NvsPartition): string[] {
   for (const entry of partition.entries) {
     const k = `${entry.namespace}::${entry.key}`;
     if (seen.has(k)) {
-      errors.push(`重复键: ${entry.namespace}/${entry.key}`);
+      errors.push(`Duplicate key: ${entry.namespace}/${entry.key}`);
     }
     seen.add(k);
   }
diff --git a/lib/ota-data/parser.ts b/lib/ota-data/parser.ts
index 1e043cb..b5aebc5 100644
--- a/lib/ota-data/parser.ts
+++ b/lib/ota-data/parser.ts
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ function isEntryValid(entry: OtaSelectEntry): boolean {
  */
 export function parseOtaData(data: Uint8Array, numOtaPartitions = DEFAULT_NUM_OTA_PARTITIONS): OtaData {
   if (data.length < OTA_DATA_MIN_SIZE) {
-    throw new Error(`OTA data too short: ${data.length} bytes, need at least ${OTA_DATA_MIN_SIZE}`);
+    throw new Error(`OTA data too short: ${data.length}B`);
   }
 
   const entry0 = parseEntry(data, 0);
diff --git a/lib/partition-table/csv-parser.ts b/lib/partition-table/csv-parser.ts
index 7221b22..451da8f 100644
--- a/lib/partition-table/csv-parser.ts
+++ b/lib/partition-table/csv-parser.ts
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ function parseFlags(str: string): number {
   for (const part of normalized.split(/[\s|,]+/).filter(Boolean)) {
     if (part === 'encrypted') result |= PartitionFlags.ENCRYPTED;
     else if (part === 'readonly') result |= PartitionFlags.READONLY;
-    else throw new Error(`未知标志: "${part}"`);
+    else throw new Error(`Unknown flag: "${part}"`);
   }
   return result;
 }
@@ -26,9 +26,9 @@ function parseSize(str: string): number {
   str = str.trim();
   if (!str) return 0;
   if (str.startsWith('0x') || str.startsWith('0X')) {
-    if (!/^0x[0-9a-f]+$/i.test(str)) throw new Error(`无效的大小/偏移值: "${str}"`);
+    if (!/^0x[0-9a-f]+$/i.test(str)) throw new Error(`Invalid size/offset value: "${str}"`);
     const v = parseInt(str, 16);
-    if (isNaN(v) || v < 0 || v > U32_MAX) throw new Error(`无效的大小/偏移值: "${str}"`);
+    if (isNaN(v) || v < 0 || v > U32_MAX) throw new Error(`Invalid size/offset value: "${str}"`);
     return v;
   }
 
@@ -40,11 +40,11 @@ function parseSize(str: string): number {
     if (unit === 'K') result = Math.floor(num * 1024);
     else if (unit === 'M') result = Math.floor(num * 1024 * 1024);
     else result = Math.floor(num);
-    if (result > U32_MAX) throw new Error(`无效的大小/偏移值: "${str}" (超出 32 位范围)`);
+    if (result > U32_MAX) throw new Error(`Invalid size/offset value: "${str}" (exceeds 32-bit range)`);
     return result;
   }
 
-  throw new Error(`无效的大小/偏移值: "${str}"`);
+  throw new Error(`Invalid size/offset value: "${str}"`);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ function splitCsvLine(line: string): string[] {
       }
     }
   }
-  if (inQuotes) throw new Error('引号未闭合');
+  if (inQuotes) throw new Error('Unclosed quote');
   fields.push(current.trim());
   return fields;
 }
@@ -111,7 +111,7 @@ export function parseCsv(text: string, onWarning?: (line: number, message: strin
     try {
       const fields = splitCsvLine(line);
       if (fields.length < 5) {
-        onWarning?.(lineIdx + 1, `字段数量不足 (需要 5，实际 ${fields.length}): "${line}"`);
+        onWarning?.(lineIdx + 1, `Not enough fields (need 5, got ${fields.length}): "${line}"`);
         continue;
       }
 
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ export function parseCsv(text: string, onWarning?: (line: number, message: strin
 
       const type = NAME_TO_TYPE[typeName];
       if (type === undefined) {
-        onWarning?.(lineIdx + 1, `未知分区类型: "${typeName}"`);
+        onWarning?.(lineIdx + 1, `Unknown partition type: "${typeName}"`);
         continue;
       }
 
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ export function parseCsv(text: string, onWarning?: (line: number, message: strin
       const flags = parseFlags(flagsStr);
       entries.push({ name, type, subtype, offset, size, flags });
     } catch (e) {
-      onWarning?.(lineIdx + 1, `解析失败: ${(e as Error).message}`);
+      onWarning?.(lineIdx + 1, `Parse failed: ${(e as Error).message}`);
     }
   }
 
diff --git a/lib/partition-table/serializer.ts b/lib/partition-table/serializer.ts
index b2cfdb6..3d43ffc 100644
--- a/lib/partition-table/serializer.ts
+++ b/lib/partition-table/serializer.ts
@@ -7,12 +7,12 @@ const U32_MAX = 0xFFFF_FFFF;
 
 function assertU8(val: number, field: string): void {
   if (!Number.isInteger(val) || val < 0 || val > 0xFF)
-    throw new Error(`"${field}" 不是有效的字节值 (0–255): ${val}`);
+    throw new Error(`"${field}" is not a valid byte value (0–255): ${val}`);
 }
 
 function assertU32(val: number, field: string): void {
   if (!Number.isInteger(val) || val < 0 || val > U32_MAX)
-    throw new Error(`"${field}" 不是有效的 32 位无符号整数 (0–0xFFFFFFFF): ${val}`);
+    throw new Error(`"${field}" is not a valid uint32 (0–0xFFFFFFFF): ${val}`);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -26,14 +26,14 @@ export function serializeBinary(table: PartitionTable): Uint8Array {
   let offset = 0;
   for (const entry of table.entries) {
     if (offset + ENTRY_SIZE > TABLE_MAX_SIZE - ENTRY_SIZE) {
-      throw new Error(`分区表条目过多，超过最大容量 (最多 ${Math.floor((TABLE_MAX_SIZE - ENTRY_SIZE) / ENTRY_SIZE)} 条)`);
+      throw new Error(`Too many partition table entries (max ${Math.floor((TABLE_MAX_SIZE - ENTRY_SIZE) / ENTRY_SIZE)})`);
     }
 
-    assertU8(entry.type,    '类型');
-    assertU8(entry.subtype, '子类型');
-    assertU32(entry.offset, '偏移量');
-    assertU32(entry.size,   '大小');
-    assertU32(entry.flags,  '标志');
+    assertU8(entry.type,    'type');
+    assertU8(entry.subtype, 'subtype');
+    assertU32(entry.offset, 'offset');
+    assertU32(entry.size,   'size');
+    assertU32(entry.flags,  'flags');
 
     writeU16(buf, offset, ENTRY_MAGIC);
     buf[offset + 2] = entry.type;
diff --git a/lib/partition-table/validator.ts b/lib/partition-table/validator.ts
index 613155e..cc713eb 100644
--- a/lib/partition-table/validator.ts
+++ b/lib/partition-table/validator.ts
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ export function validateTable(table: PartitionTable): PartitionValidationError[]
     if (names.has(entry.name)) {
       errors.push({
         type: 'duplicate_name',
-        message: `分区名称重复: "${entry.name}"`,
+        message: `Duplicate partition name: "${entry.name}"`,
         entryA: names.get(entry.name),
         entryB: entry,
       });
@@ -33,14 +33,14 @@ export function validateTable(table: PartitionTable): PartitionValidationError[]
     if (entry.offset !== 0 && entry.offset % SECTOR_SIZE !== 0) {
       errors.push({
         type: 'alignment',
-        message: `"${entry.name}" 偏移 0x${entry.offset.toString(16)} 未对齐到 4KB 边界`,
+        message: `"${entry.name}" offset 0x${entry.offset.toString(16)} not aligned to 4KB boundary`,
         entryA: entry,
       });
     }
     if (entry.size !== 0 && entry.size % SECTOR_SIZE !== 0) {
       errors.push({
         type: 'alignment',
-        message: `"${entry.name}" 大小 0x${entry.size.toString(16)} 未对齐到 4KB 边界`,
+        message: `"${entry.name}" size 0x${entry.size.toString(16)} not aligned to 4KB boundary`,
         entryA: entry,
       });
     }
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ export function validateTable(table: PartitionTable): PartitionValidationError[]
       if (a.offset < bEnd && b.offset < aEnd) {
         errors.push({
           type: 'overlap',
-          message: `"${a.name}" [0x${a.offset.toString(16)}..0x${aEnd.toString(16)}] 与 "${b.name}" [0x${b.offset.toString(16)}..0x${bEnd.toString(16)}] 重叠`,
+          message: `"${a.name}" [0x${a.offset.toString(16)}..0x${aEnd.toString(16)}] overlaps "${b.name}" [0x${b.offset.toString(16)}..0x${bEnd.toString(16)}]`,
           entryA: a,
           entryB: b,
         });